Coal production in 2018 increased by 3.3% and amounted to 7.81 million tons. Compared to 2010, it increased by 620 million tons. The structure of coal production in the world is very stable in the analyzed period of 2010–2018. Steam coal dominates in production with a share of 77%. Since 1990, the share of coal in the consumption of primary energy carriers has fallen by 3% in the global economy. In the EU, the share of coal in the consumption of primary energy carriers is more than twice lower than in the world, and in 2018 amounted to 13%. BP estimates the sufficiency of coal proven reserves based on 2018 data for the next 132 years. For oil and gas, they are estimated at 51 years. The decline in hard coal production in the European U nion can be dated almost continuously since 1990, which has decreased by 74%. In 2018, 74 million tons of coal were produced in the EU. In 2018, hard coal consumption in EU countries dropped to 226 million tons, i.e. by 20.6%.
In 2018, global trade in steam coal amounted to 1.14 billion tons. The situation in China is crucial for the international coal market. The slight change in the import policy of this country significantly affects the situation in international trade in steam coal. In 2019, coal prices (at Newcastle, Richards Bay, ARA ports) dropped by an average of 23 U SD/ton. The average decreases for these three indices were 33%. The prices of steam coal in the forecasts presented in the paper are under pressure of the falling demand.
The aim of the research is to assess and discuss the diversity of energy production and consumption in European Union countries. The time scope covers the years 2007 and 2016. The diversity of EU countries was examined using the cluster analysis. The following diagnostic features were adopted for the analysis: energy dependency rate (in %), gross inland consumption of energy per 10,000 inhabitants (toe/10,000 inhabitants), primary production of energy (all products) per 10,000 inhabitants (toe/10,000 inhabitants), primary production of renewable energies per 10,000 inhabitants (toe/10,000 inhabitants), primary production of energy (without renewable energy) per 10,000 inhabitants (toe/10,000 inhabitants). Comparing the included indicators from 2016 to 2007 for all EU countries, an increase was recorded only for the primary production of renewable energies per 10,000 inhabitants,. Based on the cluster analysis, the examined countries were divided into six groups. According to the results of the research carried out, Northern and Eastern European countries are characterized by low energy dependence. However, according to the analysis carried out, this dependence is guaranteed based on various energy sources. The Scandinavian countries (Sweden, Finland) owe their high independence to the production of large amounts of energy from renewable sources. On the other hand, countries such as the Netherlands, Denmark, Estonia and the whole of Eastern Europe are based on primary energy sources such as: coal, oil and gas. Southern Europe countries (Greece, Spain, Italy, Portugal, Cyprus, Malta) are characterized by high energy dependence, as evidenced by low rates in the area of energy production, both in total and renewable and non-renewable energy production.
Using renewable energy sources for electricity production is based on the processing of primary energy occurring in the form of sun, wind etc., into electrical energy. Economic viability using those sources in small power plants strongly depends on the support system, based mainly on financial instruments. Micro-installations, by using special instruments dedicated to the prosumer market may become more and more interesting not only in terms of environmental energy, but also financial independence. In the paper, the term hybrid power plant is understood to mean a production unit generating electricity or electricity and heat in the process of energy production, in which two or more renewable energy sources or energy sources other than renewable sources are used. The combination of the two energy sources is to their mutual complementarity, to ensure the continuity of the electricity supply. The ideal situation would be if both sources of energy included in the hybrid power plant continuously covered the total demand for energy consumers. Unfortunately, due to the short-term and long-term variability of weather conditions, such a balance is unattainable. The paper assesses the possibility of balancing the hybrid power plant in daily and monthly periods. Basic types of power plants and hybrid components and system support micro-installations were characterized. The support system is based particularly on a system of feed-in tariffs and the possibility of obtaining a preferential loan with a subsidy (redemption of part of the loan size). Then, an analysis of energy and economic efficiency for a standard set of hybrid micro-installations consisting of a wind turbine and photovoltaic panels with a total power of 5 kW, were presented. Fourteen variants of financing, economic efficiency compared with the use of the method of the simple payback period were assumed.
This paper deals with an observer design for a p-cell chopper. The goal is to reduce drastically the number of sensors in such system by using an observer in order to estimate all the capacitor voltages. Furthermore, considering an instantaneous model of a p-cell chopper, an interconnected observer is designed in order to estimate the capacitor voltages. This is realized by using only the load current measurement. Simulation results are given in order to illustrate the performance of such observer. To demonstrate the validity of our approach, experimental results based on Digital Signal Processor (DSP) are presented.
A strip yield model implementation by the present authors is applied to predict fatigue crack growth observed in structural steel specimens under various constant and variable amplitude loading conditions. Attention is paid to the model calibration using the constraint factors in view of the dependence of both the crack closure mechanism and the material stress-strain response on the load history. Prediction capabilities of the model are considered in the context of the incompatibility between the crack growth resistance for constant and variable amplitude loading.
At present, it is said that Industry 4.0 is the fourth industrial revolution. Like the previous ones, it also has the ability to transform economies, jobs and societies. Our expectations are changing to the speed of obtaining answers to the questions asked. This is done by introducing new technologies and processes. This is an opportunity for Polish participants of local heat markets, or participants of the power or energy market. who are currently facing profound changes and investments forced, among others, by BAT conclusions. Such mega-processes as digitization, automation, artificial intelligence, IoT, machine learning are increasingly penetrating the world and business. More than 200 years have passed since the first industrial revolution, which was the use of the steam engine, and the requirements for testing the efficiency of enterprises have changed, which themselves are changing very quickly. The basic efficiency measures used in a given sector often result from the specifics of the sector and its degree of development on a macroeconomic scale. Therefore, it is worth placing the energy company in this environment and presenting its role to better match the instruments used. The above is also associated with increased reporting and the need to use additional evaluation measures, e.g. effectiveness of individual projects. It is therefore worth analyzing the available literature in this area, and the performance measures available and used in it, which will help in assessing the effectiveness of management, despite political and regulatory turmoil, and help us use the opportunities brought by the fourth industrial revolution.
Hydrogen-based power engineering has great potential for upgrading present and future structures of heat and electricity generation and for decarbonizing industrial technologies. The production of hydrogen and its optimal utilization in the economy and transport for the achievement of ecological and economic goals requires a wide discussion of many technological and operational – related issues as well as intensive scientific research. The introductory section of the paper indicates the main functions of hydrogen in the decarbonization of power energy generation and industrial processes, and discusses selected assumptions and conditions for the implementation of development scenarios outlined by the Hydrogen Council, 2017 and IEA, 2019. The first scenario assumes an 18% share of hydrogen in final energy consumption in 2050 and the elimination 6 Gt of carbon dioxide emissions per year. The second document was prepared in connection with the G20 summit in Japan. It presents the current state of hydrogen technology development and outlines the scenario of their development and significance, in particular until 2030. The second part of the paper presents a description of main hybrid Power-to-Power, Power-to-Gas and Power-to-Liquid technological structures with the electrolytic production of hydrogen from renewable sources. General technological diagrams of the use of water and carbon dioxide coelectrolysis in the production of fuels using F-T synthesis and the methanol production scheme are presented. Methods of integration of renewable energy with electrolytic hydrogen production technologies are indicated, and reliability indicators used in the selection of the principal modules of hybrid systems are discussed. A more detailed description is presented of the optimal method of obtaining a direct coupling of photovoltaic (PV) panels with electrolyzers.
The primary aim of this paper was to assess the development of prosumer energy sector in Poland. In the first point, the basic notions connected with prosumer energy (micro-installation, prosumer) were discussed on the basis of Law of Renewable Energy Sources of February 20, 2015 (Journal of Laws, item 478, as amended) and the main aspects of the European Union energy policy where presented in the context of the development of the prosumer energy sector. In this part of the study, numerous benefits for the Polish economy and consumers of electrical energy, connected with the expansion of prosumer energy sector, were presented. On the other hand, many obstacles which stall this sector in Poland were noticed. In the second point the most important regulations from the Law of Renewable Energy Sources of February 20, 2015 were analyzed (In the second point the most important regulations from the Law of Renewable Energy Sources of February 20, 2015 (hereinafter: the RES act) were analyzed). On the basis of this legal act, the so called “rebate system”, which is currently used in Poland to support prosumers of electrical energy, was described. Moreover, many legal and administrative simplifications implemented by the RES act were indicated. The analytical approach to the RES Act in this study resulted in the detection of many regulations in this legal act which may have an adverse impact on the development of the prosumer energy sector in Poland. In the third point, programs co-financed by the Polish government or the European Union, which financially support the purchase and installation of energy technologies using RES, were described. Statistical data connected with the prosumer energy sector in Poland was presented in the fourth point of this paper. On the basis thereof, the authors attempted to find the correlation between the number of prosumers and the share of the amount of electrical energy from renewable energy sources in gross electrical energy consumption. In the fifth point issues connected with energy technologies used in the Polish prosumer energy sector were discussed. Moreover, this point focuses on the great popularity of photovoltaic modules among Polish prosumers and results in the reluctance of Polish prosumers to install wind microturbines and small hydroelectric power plants.
This paper discusses particular traits of historical thinking, including the role of the historian’s mentality in the perception of history.