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Sludge-derived biochar: A review on the influence of synthesis conditions on environmental risk reduction and removal mechanism of wastewater pollutants

Ming Yi Lv Hui Xin Yu Xiao Yuan Shang
Archives of Environmental Protection | 2023 | vol. 49 | No 2 | 3-15 | DOI: 10.24425/aep.2023.145892
Słowa kluczowe adsorption sludge biochar AOPs co-pyrolysis
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Abstrakt

In the context of resource utilization, the applications of waste biomass have attracted increasing attention.Previous studies have shown that forming biochar by heat treatment of sludge could replace the traditional sludge disposal methods, and sludge biochar is proved to be efficient in wastewater treatment. In this work, the pyrolysis, hydrothermal carbonization and microwave pyrolysis methods for preparing sludge biochar were reviewed, and the effects of different modification methods on the performance of sludge biochar in the synthesis process were comprehensively analyzed. This review also summarized the risk control of heavy metal leaching in sludge biochar, increasing the pyrolysis temperature and use of the fractional pyrolysis or co-pyrolysis were usually effectively meathods to reduce the leaching risk of heavy metal in the system, which is crucial for the wide application of sludge biochar in sewage treatment. At the same time, the adsorption mechanism of sludge biochar and the catalytic mechanism as the catalytic material in AOPs reaction, the process of radical and non-radical pathway and the possible impacts in the sludge biochar catalytic process were also analyzed in this paper
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Bibliografia

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Autorzy i Afiliacje

Ming Yi Lv
1
Hui Xin Yu
1
Xiao Yuan Shang
  1. Shenyang University of Chemical Technology, China

Combustion characteristics of biochar from food processing waste

Jacek Kluska Jakub Ramotowski
Archives of Thermodynamics | 2024 | vol. 45 | No 1 | 45-51 | DOI: 10.24425/ather.2024.150437
Słowa kluczowe Oat Buckwheat Grape Biochar Barbecue
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Abstrakt

This work examines biochar from carbonization of grape waste, and oat and buckwheat husks at 450ºC. The main aspects of the work concern the analysis of the fixed carbon and ash content in accordance with the European Standard. Obtained results showed that biochar from oat and buckwheat husk can be used for barbeque charcoal and barbeque charcoal bri-quettes production, whereas biochar derived from grape waste can be used for the charcoal briquettes production. Thermo-gravimetric analysis showed that biochar from grape stalk is characterized by the highest ignition and burnout performance, but in relation to the remaining samples, combustion process occurs in a narrow range of time and temperature. Obtained results showed that biochar from oat and buckwheat husks has properties, as well as combustion stability and reactivity, similar to commercial charcoal.
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Autorzy i Afiliacje

Jacek Kluska
1
Jakub Ramotowski
2
  1. Insittute of Fluid Flow Machinery, Polish Academy of Sciences, Fiszera 14, 80-231 Gdańsk, Poland
  2. Gdańsk University of Technology, Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering and EkoTech Center, Narutowicza 11/12, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland

Effect of temperature in removing of anions in solution on biochar using Zea mays stalks as a precursor

Ángel Villabona-Ortiz Candelaria Tejada-Tovar Rodrigo Ortega-Toro
Journal of Water and Land Development | 2021 | No 50 | 64-68 | DOI: 10.24425/jwld.2021.138161
Słowa kluczowe adsorption biochar cornstalks nitrate sulfate phosphate
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Abstrakt

Biochar was prepared from corn ( Zea mays) stalks and impregnated with sulfuric acid. The biomass was impregnated for 24 h with a 50% solution of H2SO4 with impregnation ratios 1:2 (B 1:2) and 1:3 p/v (B 1:3); then, it was carbonized in a muffle furnace at 520°C for 30 min with a 10°C per min ramp. The adsorption capacity to remove anions (nitrate, sulfate, and phosphate) in an aqueous solution was evaluated by varying the temperature. The adsorption mechanism was studied by determining the thermodynamic parameters: Gibbs free energy (ΔGº), enthalpy (ΔHº) and entropy (ΔSº) standard. The biochars were characterized by Scanning Electron Microscopy-Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) analysis and were found to exhibit a heterogeneous surface and porous nature, with C, O, S, and Si. The experiments in the batch system showed the best performance of B 1: 2 in the removal of the three anions occurred at 303 K, while B 1: 3 had the best performance at 298 K. From the thermodynamic parameters, it was found that the removal processes are endothermic, their mechanism is by chemisorption. It is concluded that synthesized biochar is an excellent alternative to removing nutrient anions present in the solution.
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Autorzy i Afiliacje

Ángel Villabona-Ortiz
1
Candelaria Tejada-Tovar
1
ORCID: ORCID
Rodrigo Ortega-Toro
2
ORCID: ORCID
  1. Universidad de Cartagena, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering, Cartagena de Indias, Colombia
  2. Universidad de Cartagena, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Food Engineering, Avenida Del Consulado 48-152, Cartagena 130014, Colombia

Preliminary studies on odor removal in the adsorption process on biochars produced form sewage sludge and beekeeping waste

Jacek Piekarski Tomasz Dąbrowski Janusz Dąbrowski Katarzyna Ignatowicz
Archives of Environmental Protection | 2021 | vol. 47 | No 2 | 20-28 | DOI: 10.24425/aep.2021.137275
Słowa kluczowe adsorption pyrolysis biochar odor removal organic wastes
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Abstrakt

The paper presents the preliminary study of n-butanol removal in the adsorption process. The main objective of the research was to asess whether and to what extent biochars produced from selected organic waste materials are suitable for odor removal. Biochars produced from dried sewage sludge and beekeeping waste were tested in the adsorption process. At first, raw materials were pyrolyzed and then modified with a 25% ZnCl2 solution or a 30% H2O2 solution. The adsorption process was conducted using a model gas – the European reference odorant – n-butanol. The output parameter was odor concentration Cod [ouE/m3]. Odor concentration Cod values were obtained using a dynamic olfactometry method on T08 olfactometer. The solid byproducts of pyrolysis of digested sewage sludge and beekeeping waste may be used as adsorbents for the removal of n-butanol in the adsorption process. Adsorption performance of biochar from sewage sludge is better than biochar from beekeeping waste. Additional modification with H2O2 or ZnCl2 increases the efficiency of the process, thus decreasing the required bed height for the elimination of odorant. The results of the studies confirm the findings of other authors that biochars derived from sewage sludge and other organic waste materials may be efficient sorbents in the removal of various substances from water or the air. Other biochars and methods of their activation should be tested. For practical reasons, the next stage of the research should be the determination of the adsorption front height and its migration rate.
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Autorzy i Afiliacje

Jacek Piekarski
1
Tomasz Dąbrowski
1
Janusz Dąbrowski
1
Katarzyna Ignatowicz
2
  1. Koszalin University of Technology
  2. Bialystok University of Technology

Charakterystyka wybranych technologii produkcji energii z biomasy w energetyce rozproszonej

Tomasz Mirowski Eugeniusz Mokrzycki Mariusz Filipowicz Krzysztof Sornek
Zeszyty Naukowe Instytutu Gospodarki Surowcami Mineralnymi Polskiej Akademii Nauk | 2018 | Nr 105 | 63–74 | DOI: 10.24425/124387
Słowa kluczowe OZE kotły na biomasę kogeneracja biomasa pelet toryfikacja biowęgiel
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Abstrakt

Zmiany, które dokonują się na krajowym rynku paliw stałych, w szczególności prognozy dotyczące wzrostu cen, a także rosnące wymagania związane z przestrzeganiem obowiązujących norm ochrony środowiska, powodują wzrost zainteresowania odnawialnymi źródłami energii, zwłaszcza biomasą, wiatrem i promieniowaniem słonecznym. Źródła te umożliwiają osiągnięcie redukcji emisji CO2, a tym samym uniknięcie kosztów środowiskowych po 2020 roku. Dlatego też istotne znaczenie w tym zakresie będzie miał rozwój energetyki rozproszonej, która wyposażona w kotły biomasowe, kotły gazowe i wysokosprawne CHP, umożliwi spełnienie obowiązujących norm w zakresie efektywności energetycznej oraz emisji zanieczyszczeń do powietrza. Trzeba podkreślić, że podejmowane działania związane z ograniczeniem emisji (ustawa antysmogowa) będą przyczyniać się do zmniejszenia zużycia węgla w sektorze drobnych odbiorców (gospodarstwa domowe, rolnictwo oraz pozostali odbiorcy) na korzyść biomasy bądź innych źródeł odnawialnych. W artykule dokonano przeglądu wybranych technologii biomasowych:

- kotły opalane biomasą rozdrobnioną (fluidalne, pyłowe oraz rusztowe),

- kotły do spalania słomy,

- układy kogeneracyjne zasilane biomasą,

- toryfikacja i karbonizacja biomasy.

W wymienionych technologiach biomasowych pokłada się nadzieję na ich dynamiczny rozwój i praktyczne zastosowanie w najbliższych latach, a tym samym na poprawę trudnej sytuacji w sektorze energetyki rozproszonej w zakresie mocy do 50 MW.

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Autorzy i Afiliacje

Tomasz Mirowski
Eugeniusz Mokrzycki
Mariusz Filipowicz
Krzysztof Sornek

Comparative effectiveness of biochar derived from tropical feedstocks on the adsorption for ammonium, nitrate and phosphate

Ganghua Zou Ying Shan Minjie Dai Xiaoping Xin Muhammad Nawaz Fengliang Zhao
Archives of Environmental Protection | 2022 | vol. 48 | No 4 | 25-34 | DOI: 10.24425/aep.2022.143706
Słowa kluczowe nutrients soil amendment adsorption model biochars tropical feedstock
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Abstrakt

Biochar has been extensively studied as a soil amendment to reduce nutrients losses. However, the comparative effectiveness of biochar adsorption capacity for ammonium (NH4-N), nitrate (NO3-N), and phosphate (PO4-P) remains unknown. In the present study, the effects of feedstock (banana stem and coconut shell) and temperature (300, 500, and 700°C) on biochar adsorption ability for NH 4-N, NO 3-N, and PO 4-P were investigated and fitted by three adsorption models, viz Freundlich, Langmuir, and linear. Freundlich (R 2 = 0.95–0.99) and Langmuir (R 2 = 0.91–0.95) models were found suitable for adsorption of NH 4-N. The maximum adsorption capacity (Q m) for coconut shell biochar increased with pyrolysis temperature (Q m = 12.8–15.5 mg g-1) and decreased for banana stem biochar (Q m = 12.9–9.7 mg g-1). In the case of NO 3-N adsorption, Freundlich (R 2 = 0.82–0.99) and linear model (R 2 = 1.00) were found suitable while Langmuir model showed much less contribution, similarly adsorption of PO 4-P, was not supported by these three models. The minimum concentrations required for adsorption of phosphate were recorded as 36, 8, and 3 mg L -1 using pyrolyzed biochar at the temperatures of 300, 500, and 700°C, respectively. These results indicate that the feedstock and pyrolysis temperature, as well as aquatic nutrient concentration, were important factors for the adsorption of inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus.
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Bibliografia

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Autorzy i Afiliacje

Ganghua Zou
1
Ying Shan
1
Minjie Dai
2
Xiaoping Xin
3
Muhammad Nawaz
4
Fengliang Zhao
1
  1. Environment and Plant Protection Institute, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences, China
  2. Haikou Experimental Station, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences, Chin
  3. University of Florida, United States
  4. Bahauddin Zakariya University, Pakistan

Algal biochar in dairy wastewater treatment

Karolina Dziosa Monika Makowska
Chemical and Process Engineering: New Frontiers | 2024 | vol. 45 | No 2 | e58 | DOI: 10.24425/cpe.2024.148552
Słowa kluczowe algae biomass biochar dairy wastewater Chlorella sp. sorption
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Abstrakt

The article presents a novel solution based on dairy wastewater sorption on a biochar substrate obtained through thermal decomposition of Chlorella sp. algae biomass. The algal biomass obtained in the culture medium containing wastewater from dairy production was separated from the culture medium through sedimentation and centrifugation and then freeze-dried. After freeze-drying, the dry biomass was pyrolysed at 600 °C in a CO 2 atmosphere.The EDS analysis showed that the oxygen-tocarbon (O/C) and nitrogen-to-carbon (N/C) ratios in the obtained material averaged 0.24 and 0.54 respectively. The arrangement and structure of the obtained biochar was evaluated using Raman spectroscopy. The observed spectra revealed the presence of D bands located at 1346–1354 cm -1 and corresponding to disordered carbon structures, as well as G bands located at 1585–1594 cm -1 and corresponding to tensile vibrations. The D/G intensity ratio was determined at 0.28. The next phase of the research involved sorption of dairy wastewater from cleaning processes containing 1 g of the obtained biochar using solid phase extraction. The study results confirmed high sorption efficiency of the obtained algal biochar. Turbidity was reduced by 93%, suspension by 88%, sulphates by 61%, chlorides by 80%, and organic carbon by 17%. The research confirmed the possibility of using wastewater from dairy production as a natural culture medium for Chlorella sp. algae cultivation to manufacture valuable biochar, which could be used as a sorption bed in the treatment of dairy wastewater from cleaning processes.
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Autorzy i Afiliacje

Karolina Dziosa
1
Monika Makowska
1
  1. Łukasiewicz Research Network – Institute of Sustainable Technologies, Bioeconomy andEcoinnovation Centre, Pułaskiego 6/10, 26-660 Radom, Poland

A new ecological mineral-carbonaceous material for adsorption of organic pollutants – a step towards a circular economy

Piotr Słomkiewicz Sabina Dołęgowska Katarzyna Piekacz Dariusz Wideł Maria Włodarczyk-Makuła
Archives of Environmental Protection | 2025 | 51 | 2 | 62-72 | DOI: 10.24425/aep.2025.154757
Słowa kluczowe circular economy; apple pomace; cement dust; biochar; adsorption; fungicide;
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Abstrakt

Two industrial waste products – namely, cement bypass dust and apple pomace - were used in the synthesis of a new ecological mineral-carbonaceous material intended that can be used for the adsorption of organic pollutants. The raw materials were mixed at initial ratios of 1:5, 1:9, and 1:18, then subjected to pyrolysis in a nitrogen atmosphere at 800°C. The chemical characterization of the resulting mineral-carbonaceous materials showed that the concentrations of Zn, Cd, and Pb were significantly lower than those in the raw and pyrolyzed bypass dust samples, while the concentrations of Na, Mg, Si, and P were higher. The composition and structure of the mineral-carbonaceous materials depend on the initial dust-to-pomace weight ratio. All materials exhibited a mesoporous nature, with specific surface areas more than one hundred times greater than those of the individual substrates. The highest value exhibits the material with the 1:9 bypass dust-to-apple pomace ratio. This material also had a homogenous, fine-grained structure, with the bypass dust completely covered by carbon.After 24 h, approximately 90% of captan was removed from the aqueous solution and adsorbed onto the mineral-carbonaceous materials. The removal efficiency depended on the initial bypass dust-to-apple pomace ratio, with the best performance (97.3%) observed in the material synthesized at the 1:9 ratio. Our results confirm that otherwise useless wastes can serve as suitable substrates for the synthesis of mineral-carbonaceous materials, which can function as adsorbents for organic pollutants and as potential sources of valuable nutrients.
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Bibliografia

  2. Abin-Bazaine, A., Trujillo, A.C. & Olmos-Marquez, M., (2022). Adsorption Isotherms: Enlightenment of the Phenomenon of Adsorption. In: Ince, M., Ince, O.K. (eds) Wastewater Treatment. IntechOpen. DOI:10.5772/intechopen.104260
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Autorzy i Afiliacje

Piotr Słomkiewicz
1
Sabina Dołęgowska
1
Katarzyna Piekacz
1
Dariusz Wideł
1
Maria Włodarczyk-Makuła
2
  1. Institute of Chemistry, Jan Kochanowski University, Kielce, Poland
  2. Faculty of Infrastructure and Environment, Częstochowa University of Technology, Poland

Coconut shell biochar as a sustainable approach for nutrient removal from agricultural wastewater

Tivany Edwin Puti Sri Komala Mas Mera Zulkarnaini Zulkarnaini Zadariana Jamil
Journal of Water and Land Development | 2025 | No 65 | 177-184 | DOI: 10.24425/jwld.2025.154261
Słowa kluczowe agricultural wastewater coconut shell biochar nutrients pyrolysis sorption
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Abstrakt

Coconut shell residues are abundant in tropical countries and have the potential to be further processed into biochar. Due to its specific characteristics, biochar has the potential to remove contaminants from wastewater. The intensification of agriculture in these tropical countries produces large volumes of wastewater that require nutrient removal before being discharged into water bodies. Accumulated nutrient in bodies of water can lead to eutrophication. This study investigates the capacity of coconut shell biochar in removing phosphate, ammonium, and nitrate from agricultural wastewater using both batch adsorption and fixed-bed column methods. The nutrient sorption capacity of biochar produced at different pyrolysis temperatures (300°C, 450°C, and 600°C) was evaluated and compared with locally produced biochar from Padang City. Findings indicated that the nutrient adsorption efficiency of coconut shell biochar is influenced by pyrolysis temperature and is comparable to that of local biochar. The sorption capacity of ammonium, nitrate, and phosphate using local biochar were 10.12, 7.51, and 10.79 mg∙g−1. A continuous sorption study using a fixed-bed column reactor confirmed the ability of local coconut shell biochar in removing nutrients from real agricultural wastewater. This study highlights the potential of utilising coconut shell waste as a sustainable material for nutrient removal from wastewater, thereby helping to prevent nutrient pollution in water bodies.
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Autorzy i Afiliacje

Tivany Edwin
1
Puti Sri Komala
1
Mas Mera
1
Zulkarnaini Zulkarnaini
1
Zadariana Jamil
2
  1. Andalas University, School of Engineering, Department of Environmental Engineering, Limau Manis, Padang, Sumatera Barat 25163, Indonesia
  2. Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia

Arsenic removal through bio sand filter using different bio-adsorbents

Ghulam S. Keerio Hareef A. Keerio Khalil A. Ibuphoto Mahmood Laghari Sallahuddin Panhwar Mashooque A. Talpur
Journal of Water and Land Development | 2021 | No 48 | 11-15 | DOI: 10.24425/jwld.2021.136141
Słowa kluczowe arsenic banana peel bio-adsorbent bio-sand filter biochar rice-husk water treatment
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Abstrakt

Arsenic is one of the most harmful pollutants in groundwater. In this paper, the Nepali bio sand filter (BSF) was modi-fied with different bio-adsorbents, and proved to be an efficient method for arsenic removal from groundwater. Three dif-ferent bio-adsorbents were used to modify the Nepali BSF. Iron nails and biochar BSF, ~96% and ~93% arsenic removal was achieved, within the range of WHO guidelines. In iron nails, BSF and biochar BSF ~15 dm3∙h–1 arsenic content water was treated. In the other two BSFs, rice-husk and banana peel were used, the arsenic removal efficiency was ~83% of both BSFs. Furthermore, the efficiency of rice-husk and banana peel BSFs can be increased by increasing the surface area of the adsorbent or by reducing the flow rate.

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Bibliografia

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Autorzy i Afiliacje

Ghulam S. Keerio
1
Hareef A. Keerio
2
ORCID: ORCID
Khalil A. Ibuphoto
3
Mahmood Laghari
1
Sallahuddin Panhwar
4
Mashooque A. Talpur
5
  1. Sindh Agriculture University, Department of Energy and Environment, Tandojam, Pakistan
  2. Hanyang University, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Seoul, South Korea
  3. Sindh Agriculture University, Department of Farm Structures, Tandojam, Pakistan
  4. Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, US-Pakistan Centers for Advanced Studies in Water, Jamshoro, Pakistan
  5. Sindh Agriculture University, Department of Irrigation and Drainage, Tandojam, Pakistan

Effect of magnetic fields and fertilizers on grass and onion growth on technogenic soils

Maria Vasilyeva Stanislav Kovshov Johnny Zambrano Maxim Zhemchuzhnikov
Journal of Water and Land Development | 2021 | No 49 | 55-62 | DOI: 10.24425/jwld.2021.137096
Słowa kluczowe alternating magnetic field biochar bioefficiency biohumus constant magnetic field fertilization physiological parameters of plants technogenic soil
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Abstrakt

The article deals with effect the use of organic (biohumus) and mineral (biochar) fertilizers based on the products of chicken vital activity on changing the fertility of technogenic sod-podzolic soils exposed to constant and unstable magnetic fields. The germination and growth dynamics of grasses and onions were investigated. The rational rate of introduction of the studied fertilizers into the technogenic soil is determined. Running (RMF) and direct (DMF) magnetic fields were applied in two ways: with fertilizers added and without fertilizers added. It has been established that the effect of preliminary magnetization of technogenic soil has a significant effect on lawn grass germination and the length of onion feathers, which are more than twice the height when exposed to the RMF, as compared with DMF. The effect of RMF on grass germination was also twice as high for DMF, when fertilizers were added. The DMF mag-netization and biohumus helps to increase the grass sprout height by 10–20%. Onion sprouts were higher in two cases: DMF and biohumus; RMF and biochar. The influence of the factor of fertilizer type has a significant effect in 30–40% of cases, whilst at a spread rate of more than 5%, significant chemical activity of biochar negatively affects the germination of both grass and onion.
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Autorzy i Afiliacje

Maria Vasilyeva
1
ORCID: ORCID
Stanislav Kovshov
2
ORCID: ORCID
Johnny Zambrano
3
ORCID: ORCID
Maxim Zhemchuzhnikov
4
ORCID: ORCID
  1. Saint Petersburg Mining University, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Transport and Technological Processes and Machines, 2, 21st Line, St Petersburg 199106, Russia
  2. Saint Petersburg Mining University, Department of Industrial Safety, St Petersburg, Russia
  3. Escuela Politecnica Nacional, Departamento de Petróleos, Quito, Ecuador
  4. JSC Roskar Poultry Farm, Pervomayskoe settlement, Leningrad region, Russia

Research of batch and fixed-bed column adsorption for phosphorus removal from wastewater using sewage sludge biochar

Rasa Vaiškūnaitė
Archives of Environmental Protection | 2024 | 50 | 4 | 72-81 | DOI: 10.24425/aep.2024.152897
Słowa kluczowe wastewater; removal of phosphorus; biochar of sewage sludge; batch adsorption; fixed-bed columnadsorption;
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Abstrakt

Wastewater treatment and the efficient use of sewage sludge biochar are critical in addressing the needs of ever-increasing population in the world. Recently, phosphorus (P) removal from wastewater has become highly relevant and important, primarily to reduce eutrophication in surface waters. Using sewage sludge biochar as an adsorbent for phosphate removal from wastewater offers an opportunity to reuse sewage sludge (SS) and return phosphorus to the biogeochemical cycle. In this study, the efficiency of two phosphate removal methods - batch adsorption and fixed-bed column process – was investigated using pyrolyzed sewage sludge biochar (PSSB) produced at different temperatures (300 °C, 400 °C, 500 °C, 600 °C). In the batch adsorption experiment, direct mixing of 600 °C pyrolyzed sewage sludge biochar with wastewater resulted in a relatively low phosphate removal efficiency (only about 18 %) at an initial phosphate concentration of 100 mg/l. In contrast, the fixed-bed column process, using PSSB as a filter for phosphate adsorption, showed significantly better results. The highest phosphate removal efficiency (up to 90%) was achieved after 30 min of filtration, using an initial phosphate concentration of 30 mg/l initial and biochar pyrolyzed at 600 °C.
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Autorzy i Afiliacje

Rasa Vaiškūnaitė
1
ORCID: ORCID
  1. Department of Environmental Protection and Water Engineering,Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, Lithuania

Analysis of the current state and development of direct carbon fuel cells with an alkaline electrolyte

Andrzej Kacprzak
Polityka Energetyczna - Energy Policy Journal | 2018 | vol. 21 | No 4 | 87–102 | DOI: 10.24425/124509
Słowa kluczowe direct carbon fuel cell alkaline electrolyte high efficiency energy technologies fossil carbons biochar
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Abstrakt

Among the numerous modern, high-efficiency energy technologies allowing for the conversion of chemical energy of coal into electricity and heat, the Direct Carbon Fuel Cells (DCFC) deserve special attention. These are devices that allow, as the only one among all types of fuel cells, to directly convert the chemical energy contained in solid fuel (coal) into electricity. In addition, they are characterized by high efficiency and low emission of pollutants. The paper reviews and discusses previous research and development works, both around the world and in Poland, into the technology of direct carbon fuel cells with an alkaline (hydroxide) electrolyte.

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Autorzy i Afiliacje

Andrzej Kacprzak

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