Historie. Jahrbuch des Zentrums für Historische Forschung Berlin der Polnischen Akademie der Wissenschaften

The article explores war as a perplexing social phenomenon, one that often appears more enticing to mankind than peace despite the numerous advantages attributed to the latter, as exemplified in the writings of Hesiod. The origins of war remain somewhat enigmatic, but evidence of its existence can be traced back to Paleo-lithic settlements and ancient texts like the Epic of Gilgamesh. After the abandonment of divine laws, we find ourselves in a world see-mingly devoid of rules, witnessing a growing state of anarchy in in-ternational relations, a trend that has intensified since the early 21st century, culminating in Putin’s 2022 attack on Ukraine. Some phi-losophers, such as Umberto Eco, argue that humanity has entered a new era akin to the “Middle Ages” characterized by the resur-gence of private violence and the proliferation of religious and civil wars. Former ceasefires have given way to “cold wars” which, re-grettably, still have the propensity to escalate into “hot wars” as seen in the full-scale war in Ukraine. Furthermore, the current interna-tional landscape is overshadowed by the specter of nuclear deter-rence, where a precarious balance of fear prevails. Additionally, assumptions about the brevity of contemporary wars and the immi-nent return of refugees, which were advocated until very recently, now face reconsideration.

The crisis of the Catholic Church due to the Reformation marked a profound shift in European religious dynamics during the 16th century. This transformation led to confessional conflicts previous-ly unseen in Europe’s history. Within this context, the Warsaw Confederation 1573 stands out as an extraordinary event. Unlike traditional peace settlements following religious wars or edicts is-sued by rulers, it was a political and pragmatic measure introduced by the Sejm and aimed at maintaining peace during the Interre-gnum period, and preventing bloody conflicts. The path to this uni-que solution lay in the multiculturalism of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth on which territories Roman Catholics already in the late Middle Ages coexisted with Orthodox Christians. Besides, through Poland’s diplomatic efforts, the protestant Duchy of Prussia was established in 1525 following the secularization of the Teu-tonic Order. The Warsaw Confederation remains an exceptional example of resolving internal religious conflicts in the early modern period, as the Western countries, with their conflict-oriented mind-set, were less inclined to pursue such a path.

Despite the concerted efforts of the German administration in the occupied Łódź region, German-Polish mixed intimate relation-ships persisted. This article analyzes this issue in the context of the German civilian population, particularly ethnic Germans from Łódź, and Poles. During World War II, the occupying forces sought to prevent the formation and legalization of new intimate relationships between ethnic Germans and Poles. They introdu-ced more relaxed divorce laws to facilitate the dissolution of existing marriages. The Deutsche Volksliste (German Peoples’ List, DVL), established in the spring of 1940, played a pivotal role in this policy. Despite internal confusion and dilemmas, many Polish partners and children in ethnically mixed, legalized relationships were allowed limited German citizenship status as Volksdeutsche in the lowest categories. The process of inclusion and exclusion was deeply intertwined during the classification, driven by the necessity to avoid “ethnic confusion” and the potential displeasure of their German partners. The complexity of this ethnic categorization system and the policies governing ethnically mixed relationships became increasingly intri-cate with each passing year of the German occupation of Poland. However, these complexities did not disrupt the stability of the eth-nic hierarchy imposed by the occupiers in Łódź.

In the tumultuous period known as the “Age of Extremes”, span-ning from the aftermath of WWII to the early 21st century, several pivotal dynamics shaped the historical landscape in Europe. This era bore witness to contrasting forces: the profound violence of two world wars, genocides, a multitude of regional military conflicts, and coerced mass migrations, alongside the emergence of peace movements that played a critical role in the success of the “peaceful revolutions” in countries such as Poland, Czechoslovakia, the German Democratic Republic (GDR), and other Eastern Bloc countries in 1989. This epoch also saw the rise of influential institutions, non-governmental organizations, and grassroots initiatives, all dedicated to fostering dialogue and reconciliation among peo-ples who had been bitterly divided by the horrors of war.

Within this context, both international textbook dialogues and binational history textbook projects assumed significant roles in the pursuit of reconciliation. Notable examples of the latter include the Franco-German Histoire/Geschichte and the German-Polish Europa – Unsere Geschichte / Europa. Nasza historia, two transnational history textbook series published at the beginning of the 21st century. These initiatives can be viewed not only as vital milestones in bilateral textbook dialogue but also as key waypoints in the broader European reconciliation efforts following WWII.

The Muzeum Emigracji, established in 2012, is a notable exemplar of the burgeoning narrative history museums in Poland and, notably, the only Polish migration museum to date. Its permanent exhibition traces the history of Polish emigration from the 19th century to the present. In this context, this examination, grounded in migration and museum research, scrutinizes the representation of Polish migrants and their descendants within the exhibition section titled “Polonia and the Poles in the World”. This analysis cen-ters on the narratives presented therein.

The central contention posits that the organizing principle of the exhibition revolves around a national narrative: the migrants’ history unfolds predominantly from the perspective of their country of origin. Concurrently, the exhibition continues to regard migrants and their progeny as integral components of the Polish national community. They are portrayed as a valuable resource that enhances the standing of the Polish nation abroad or fulfils various roles in its service. Consequently, the multifaceted identity concepts of the migrants fade into the background within this representation.