Applied sciences

Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences Technical Sciences

Description

The Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences Technical Sciences is published bimonthly by the Division IV Engineering Sciences of the Polish Academy of Sciences, since the beginning of the existence of the PAS in 1952. The journal is peer‐reviewed and is published both in printed and electronic form. It is established for the publication of original high quality papers from multidisciplinary Engineering sciences with the following topics preferred:

Artificial and Computational Intelligence,
Biomedical Engineering and Biotechnology,
Civil Engineering,
Control, Informatics and Robotics,

Electronics, Telecommunication and Optoelectronics,
Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering, Thermodynamics,
Material Science and Nanotechnology,
Power Systems and Power Electronics.

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Journal Metrics:

JCR Impact Factor 2023:	1.2
5 Year Impact Factor 2022:	1.1
CiteScore 2023:	2.8
SCImago Journal Rank (SJR) 2023:	0.282
Source Normalized Impact per Paper (SNIP) 2023:	0.573
Ministry of Education and Science:	100 points

Abbreviated title: Bull. Pol. Acad. Sci. Tech. Sci.

ISSN

ISSN 2300-1917

Editorial Board 2023-2025

Editor-in-Chief:

A. Rogalski, Military University of Technology

Honorary (Past) Editor-in Chief:

T. Kaczorek, Warsaw University of Technology

M.P. Kaźmierkowski, Warsaw University of Technology

Deputy Editor-in-Chief:

B. Błachowski, Institute of Fundamental Technological Research PAN

M. Mrozowski, Gdansk University of Technology

Board of Topical Co-editors:

Artificial and Computational Intelligence

S. Osowski, B. Sawicki and T. Leś, Warsaw University of Technology

Biomedical Engineering and Biotechnology

D. Pijanowska, Institute of Biocybernetics and Biomedical Engineering PAN

Civil Engineering

L. Czarnecki, Building Research Institute, ITB, Warsaw

Ł. Sadowski, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology

Control, Robotics and Informatics

J. Klamka and A. Babiarz, Silesian Technical University

J. Stefanowski, Poznan University of Technology

Electronics, Telecommunication and Optoelectronics

M. Mrozowski and A. Lamęcki, Gdansk University of Technology

Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering, Thermodynamics

B. Błachowski, Institute of Fundamental Technological Research PAN

G. Zboiński, Institute of Fluid-Flow Machinery PAN and University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn

Materials Science and Nanotechnology

B. Major and P. Czaja, Institute of Metallurgy and Materials Science PAN

Power Systems and Power Electronics

J. Rąbkowski and M. Jasiński, Warsaw University of Technology

International Editorial Advisory Board

R. Asthana, University of Wisconsin-Stout, Menomonie, USA

Xu Binshi, China Association of Plant Engineering, Beijing, P.R. China

F. Blaabjerg, Aalborg University, Denmark

C. Cecati, University of L’Aquila, Italy

A. Cichocki, RIKEN Institute, Tokyo, Japan

M. David, National Polytechnique de Toulouse, France

R. Ebner, Materials Centre Leoben, Leoben, Austria

E. Fornasini, University of Padova, Padova, Italy

L.G. Franquelo, University of Sevilla, Spain

M. Gad-el-Hak, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, USA

M. Giersig, Free University of Berlin, Germany

D. van Gemert, Catholic University Leuven, KU Leuven, Belgium

L. Keviczky, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary

V. Kučera, Czech Technical University in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic

R. Kennel, Technical University Munich, Germany

T.A. Kowalewski, Institute of Fundamental Technological Research PAN

E. Levi, Liverpool John Moore University, UK

G. Maier, Technical University of Milan, Milan, Italy

K.F. Man, City University of Hong Kong,

R. Maniewski, Institute of Biocybernetics and Biomedical Engineering PAN

H.A. Mang, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, Austria

H. Mihashi, Tohoku University, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Japan

S. Mindess, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada

D.A. Mlynski, University of Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe, Germany

A.S. Nowak, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA

K. Ohnishi, Keio University, Yokohama, Japan

A. Öberg, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden

W. Pedrycz, University of Alberta, Canada

M. Razeghi, Northwestern University, Evanston, USA

J. Rodriguez, University of Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile

J.V. Sloten, Catholic University Leuven, Leuven, Belgium

B.M. Wilamowski, University of Auburn, Alabama, USA

A.L. Yarin, University of Illinois at Chicago, USA

Du Xiangwan, Chinese Academy of Engineering, China

J. Żurada, Department of Computer Engineering, University of Louisville, USA

Editorial Office:

Pałac Kultury i Nauki

Wydział IV Nauk Technicznych PAN

Pl. Defilad 1

PL 00-901 Warszawa

Managing Editor:

Renata Podraza, e-mail: Renata.Podraza@pan.pl

Finance:

Katarzyna Łasak, e-mail: Katarzyna.Lasak@pan.pl

The Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences Technical Sciences is an open access journal with all content available with no charge in full text version.

The journal content is available under the licencse CC BY 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences Technical Sciences | 2025 | 73 | 4

1 Recent advances in electromechanical energy conversion systems

Jan Sykulski , Jacek Rąbkowski

Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences Technical Sciences | 2025 | 73 | 4 | e154732 | DOI: 10.24425/bpasts.2025.154732

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Authors and Affiliations

Jan Sykulski

e-mail:

ORCID:

Jacek Rąbkowski

e-mail:

ORCID:

University of Southampton, United Kingdom
Warsaw University of Technology, Poland

2 EMF signature analysis in a marine-type brushless synchronous generator for online fault detection

Filip Kutt , Michał Michna , Grzegorz Kostro

Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences Technical Sciences | 2025 | 73 | 4 | e154207 | DOI: 10.24425/bpasts.2025.154207

Keywords: generator maintenance diagnostic marine ship

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Abstract

The objective of the paper is to investigate the application of the current signature analysis type approach for the online diagnosis of a marine-type brushless synchronous generator (BSG). The system diagnostic would be done using an automated test procedure when the generator comes online or offline. The analysis of the measured electromotive force waveform (EMF) is used for fault detection. The paper’s main contribution is the development of a fault detection algorithm that would allow the generator to be safely operated in remote marine-type conditions where low maintenance costs are a crucial aspect of the system operation. To verify the diagnostic algorithm, a special measurement system was developed to emulate generator faults.

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Authors and Affiliations

Filip Kutt

e-mail:

ORCID:

Michał Michna

e-mail:

ORCID:

Grzegorz Kostro

e-mail:

ORCID:

Gdańsk University of Technology, Gdansk, Poland

3 Experimental studies on reducing permanent magnet losses through segmentation in a fractional slot PMSM with high power density

Tomasz Wolnik , Tomasz Jarek , Jan Mikoś , Vitezslav Styskala

Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences Technical Sciences | 2025 | 73 | 4 | e153225 | DOI: 10.24425/bpasts.2025.153225

Keywords: eddy current losses segmentation of permanent magnets high power density motors

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Abstract

The paper presents the results of numerical calculations and experimental tests on reducing eddy current losses in permanent magnets by means of segmentation in a high-power fractional slot PMSM. This type of motor allows for obtaining a high value of specific power (kW/kg), but at the same time they are characterized by the problem of eddy current losses in rotor elements. Thus designed and manufactured model of motor, which is the subject of this work, has a maximum power of 50 kW (at 4800 rpm) and a mass of 10.5 kg. Reducing eddy current losses by segmentation of permanent magnets is a well-known and widely described method, but there is a lack of papers showing the results of experimental studies, in particular of high-power density motors. This article presents results of the effectiveness of reducing eddy current losses for several variants of axial and circumferential segmentation. The results of experimental studies were verified and compared with the results of numerical calculations performed in the ANSYS Motor-CAD software.

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Authors and Affiliations

Tomasz Wolnik

e-mail:

ORCID:

Tomasz Jarek

e-mail:

ORCID:

Jan Mikoś

e-mail:

ORCID:

Vitezslav Styskala

e-mail:

ORCID:

Łukasiewicz Research Network – Upper Silesian Institute of Technology, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland
Department of Electrical Power Engineering, VSB-Technical University of Ostrava, 708 00 Ostrava-Poruba, Czech Republic

4 Analysis of the impact of the method of manufacturing a rotor on the parameters of an AC IPM machine

Mariusz Korkosz , Adrian Młot , Elżbieta Sztajmec , Karol Ryłło

Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences Technical Sciences | 2025 | 73 | 4 | e153433 | DOI: 10.24425/bpasts.2025.153433

Keywords: anisotropy cogging torque IPM motor electrical steel sheet torque ripple reduction

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Abstract

This article presents the technological problem related to the production of rotors with an internal permanent magnet. Most often, the magnetic circuits of such rotors used in alternating current synchronous motors (AC IPM) are made of isotropic magnetic sheets. At this point, it should be noted that it is often not taken into account that each isotropic magnetic sheet exhibits some anisotropy. This significantly affects the operational parameters of the brushless permanent magnet (PM) motor such as the cogging torque, electromagnetic torque ripples and an increase in induced voltage harmonics. To illustrate how important it is to properly design the rotor core, two rotors of the IPM motor were analyzed in this work. In the first rotor solution, minimization of the magnetic sheet anisotropy was not taken into account, and the skew of the magnets was not used. In the second case of the IPM motor, the problem of rotor magnetic circuit anisotropy was minimized and an additional skew of the PMs was used. The obtained measurements and calculations of selected useful parameters of both rotor designs were then compared with each other. Importantly, the conclusions drawn and the resulting comments will prove useful to designers, assemblers and manufacturers of electrical machine components.

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Authors and Affiliations

Mariusz Korkosz

e-mail:

ORCID:

Adrian Młot

e-mail:

ORCID:

Elżbieta Sztajmec

e-mail:

ORCID:

Karol Ryłło

e-mail:

ORCID:

Rzeszow University of Technology, Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Rzeszow, Poland
Opole University of Technology, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Automatic Control and Informatics, Opole, Poland

5 Study on properties of multipole switched reluctance motor designed for multichannel operation – single channel operation analysis

Mariusz Korkosz , Piotr Bogusz , Jan Prokop , Piotr Zasowski

Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences Technical Sciences | 2025 | 73 | 4 | e153428 | DOI: 10.24425/bpasts.2025.153428

Keywords: multi-channel switched reluctance motor critical drive increased redundancy drive single-channel operation

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Abstract

The following paper deals with the multipole design of the switched reluctance motor (SRM). The design is intended to facilitate the four-channel operation of the motor. Due to multipole design of the rotor and multichannel operation abilities, there are numerous potential configurations for powering the poles in each phase. Analysis of a selection of such configurations was carried out, including multichannel (MC) operating conditions (e.g., single-channel operation (SCO)). A mathematical model of three-phase MC SRM is also presented. The static electromagnetic torque characteristics were obtained together with the self-and mutual inductance characteristics. Selected laboratory test results are likewise presented in the paper.

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Authors and Affiliations

Mariusz Korkosz

e-mail:

ORCID:

Piotr Bogusz

e-mail:

ORCID:

Jan Prokop

e-mail:

ORCID:

Piotr Zasowski

e-mail:

ORCID:

Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Rzeszow University of Technology, Rzeszow, Poland

6 Three-axis forces and torque sensor

Paweł Młotek , Piotr Mynarek , Marcin Kowol

Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences Technical Sciences | 2025 | 73 | 4 | e153437 | DOI: 10.24425/bpasts.2025.153437

Keywords: three-axis force and torque sensor optical measurement of force and torque STM microcontroller structural analysis

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Abstract

This paper describes research on a prototype of a multi-axis force and torque sensor dedicated to the support system of a telescopic camera crane arm. Based on studies conducted on an actual telescopic camera crane arm, the requirements that the sensor must meet to enable precise control of the drives in two working axes of the telescopic camera crane arm were defined. In the sensor developed, a method for measuring forces and torques using an optical displacement sensor was proposed. A simplified sensor prototype was made to verify the assumptions, and measurement tests were carried out. Additionally, the paper presents a CAD model of the sensor using an elastic pin, based on which a numerical model was developed, and calculations of displacements and mechanical stresses were performed.

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Authors and Affiliations

Paweł Młotek

e-mail:

ORCID:

Piotr Mynarek

e-mail:

ORCID:

Marcin Kowol

e-mail:

ORCID:

Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Automatic Control and Informatics, Opole University of Technology, Opole, Poland

7 A flying start method for sensorless induction machine-based electric drives

Daniel Wachowiak

Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences Technical Sciences | 2025 | 73 | 4 | e154206 | DOI: 10.24425/bpasts.2025.154206

Keywords: induction machine flying start speed observer sensorless drive DC injection

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Abstract

This paper presents an analysis of a proposed flying start method for sensorless electric drives based on an induction machine. The method introduces two stages. In the first stage, the rotor speed is estimated using the step response of the machine, which enables coarse estimation of the speed and direction of rotation, helping to reduce the initial slip. The second stage introduces an intermediate control system to facilitate the machine restart and assist the speed observer in converging. Simulation and experimental studies demonstrate that the method successfully restarts the machine with an unknown initial rotor speed without exceeding the nominal current. The auxiliary control system fully excites a 5.5 kW machine within 300 ms during the flying start, after which it is possible to transition to the target control system.

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Authors and Affiliations

Daniel Wachowiak

e-mail:

ORCID:

Department of Electric Drives and Energy Conversion, Faculty of Electrical and Control Engineering and EkoTech Center,Gdansk University of Technology, ul. Narutowicza 11/12, 80-233 Gdansk, Poland

8 Slip compensation technique in five-phase induction motors drive system

Krzysztof Blecharz , Roland Ryndzionek , Paul Gondran , Imad Merzouk

Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences Technical Sciences | 2025 | 73 | 4 | e153223 | DOI: 10.24425/bpasts.2025.153223

Keywords: five-phase induction motor multi-phase motor open-loop control slip compensation scalar control

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Abstract

The article presents a slip compensation method for traditional scalar (V/f) control of a five-phase induction motor. The proposed control method uses the possibility of injecting the third harmonic of voltage to increase the motor’s electromagnetic torque. The solution is characterized by both the simplicity of scalar control and improved speed control efficiency. The paper presents the PLECS simulation results and describes the laboratory tests that were conducted. Several scenarios were performed with dedicated and self developed algorithm in a laboratory stand using a five-phase induction motor.

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Authors and Affiliations

Krzysztof Blecharz

e-mail:

ORCID:

Roland Ryndzionek

e-mail:

ORCID:

Paul Gondran

Imad Merzouk

Gdansk University of Technology, Faculty of Electrical and Control Engineering, ul. Narutowicza 11/12, 80-233 Gdansk, Poland
Novatem SAS, 20 avenue Didier DAURAT, 31400 Touluse, France
Djelfa University, Laboratory of Applied Automation and Industriual Diagnosis, 17000 Djelfa, Algeria

9 Sensorless control with multi-scalar transformation of five-phase IPMSM

Deepak Vyas , Sahal Ibn Islam Joy , Marcin Morawiec , Grzegorz Kostro , Łukasz Sienkiewicz , Nirav Joshi

Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences Technical Sciences | 2025 | 73 | 4 | e154281 | DOI: 10.24425/bpasts.2025.154281

Keywords: multi-phase machine nonlinear control sensorless control

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Abstract

This article proposes sensorless multiscalar control for a multiphase interior permanent magnet synchronous machine. The chosen parameters are estimated using an adaptive observer structure. In the proposed solution, the machine model vector form is in the stationary reference frame (��), and transformation to (��) – the coordinate system is unnecessary to implement the proposed control structure. In the control structure, the nonlinear model linearization is based on demonstrated nonlinear variables transformation for (��)(��) orthogonal planes. Using the proposed control technique, mechanical and electromagnetic subsystems are decoupled, which is the main advantage of this control structure. To provide a comparative analysis, the proposed multiscalar control structure is also compared with the existing multiscalar control scheme. Finally, the simulation and experimental results are demonstrated to validate the performance of the proposed control solution for a sensorless five-phase interior permanent magnet synchronous motor test setup.

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Authors and Affiliations

Deepak Vyas

1 2

e-mail:

ORCID:

Sahal Ibn Islam Joy

e-mail:

ORCID:

Marcin Morawiec

e-mail:

ORCID:

Grzegorz Kostro

e-mail:

ORCID:

Łukasz Sienkiewicz

e-mail:

ORCID:

Nirav Joshi

e-mail:

ORCID:

Faculty of Electrical and Control Engineering, Gdansk ´ University of Technology, ul. Narutowicza 11/12, 80-233 Gdansk, ´ Poland
Department of Electrical Engineering, School of Energy Technology, Pandit Deendayal Energy University
Department of Electrical Engineering, Marwadi University, Rajkot, Gujarat, India

10 Energy efficiency of supercapacitors in hybrid energy storage systems

Mirosław Lewandowski , Marek Orzydłowski , Tadeusz Maciołek

Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences Technical Sciences | 2025 | 73 | 4 | e153841 | DOI: 10.24425/bpasts.2025.153841

Keywords: supercapacitor storage system energy loss fractional calculus impedance model

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Abstract

The supercapacitor supports the main energy source of the hybrid electrical energy storage system. In short periods, it supplies additional energy or absorbs braking energy. The paper addresses the issue of energy losses in supercapacitors used in such a pulsed mode of operation. Commonly used first-order RC capacitor impedance models are not a good basis for accurate calculation results of energy losses in supercapacitors. The article presents fractional-order supercapacitor impedance models based on the Cole-Cole relaxation equation. The following part presents the results of measurements of energy losses in real supercapacitors in comparison with simulation calculations using both above-mentioned supercapacitor impedance models. The article also discusses the problem of using the equivalent series resistance (ESR) values in RC impedance models, called AC ESR and DC ESR, specified by different supercapacitor manufacturers. It shows that the simulation results using the presented fractional impedance model are the closest to reality. The use of the other discussed models leads to even a several-fold underestimation of energy losses in supercapacitors used in electric energy storage systems.

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Authors and Affiliations

Mirosław Lewandowski

Marek Orzydłowski

Tadeusz Maciołek

e-mail:

ORCID:

Electrical Power Engineering Institute of the Warsaw University of Technology, Warsaw, Poland

11 Processing and analysis of trolleybus traction data using LINQ technology

Andrzej Wilk , Mikołaj Bartłomiejczyk , Jacek Skibicki , Leszek Jarzębowicz , Dariusz R. Karkosinski , Łukasz Hupka , Jan Hupka , Paweł Kaczmarek , Natalia Karkosinska-Brzozowska

Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences Technical Sciences | 2025 | 73 | 4 | e154144 | DOI: 10.24425/bpasts.2025.154144

Keywords: trolleybuses traction batteries exploatation and maintaining

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Abstract

The paper presents the processing and analysis of the recorded trolleybus data using the LINQ (Language Integrated Query) software technology. The trolleybus data acquisition system collects a huge amount of electromechanical data in real time during vehicle operation. These data are used for the analysis in post-processing mode. In this paper, data processing was performed to assess the technical condition of trolleybus batteries. Selected standard query operators of the LINQ technology were implemented in the Windows Presentation Foundation (WPF) application to process the data and to determine the charge and energy stored in the battery. The LINQ technology proved to be useful for analyzing large amounts of data recorded from trolleybuses.

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Authors and Affiliations

Andrzej Wilk

e-mail:

ORCID:

Mikołaj Bartłomiejczyk

e-mail:

ORCID:

Jacek Skibicki

e-mail:

ORCID:

Leszek Jarzębowicz

e-mail:

ORCID:

Dariusz R. Karkosinski

e-mail:

ORCID:

Łukasz Hupka

e-mail:

ORCID:

Jan Hupka

e-mail:

ORCID:

Paweł Kaczmarek

Natalia Karkosinska-Brzozowska

e-mail:

ORCID:

Gdansk University of Technology, Faculty of Electrical and Control Engineering, Gdansk, Poland
Gdansk University of Technology, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdansk, Poland
Pomorskie Przedsiebiorstwo Mechaniczno-Torowe Sp. z o.o.
Gdansk University of Technology, Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Gdansk, Poland

12 Multilevel voltage source inverter with coupled reactors using coarsely quantized pulse amplitude modulation

Krzysztof Jakub Szwarc , Artur Cichowski , Paweł Szczepankowski , Janusz Nieznański , Ryszard Strzelecki

Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences Technical Sciences | 2025 | 73 | 4 | 153227 | DOI: 10.24425/bpasts.2025.153227

Keywords: multi-level inverter pulse amplitude modulation coupled reactors multi-pulse voltage source inverter

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Abstract

The paper discusses a multilevel voltage source inverter with coupled reactors (MVSI-CR). The output voltage is generated using the novel coarsely quantized pulse amplitude modulation (CQ-PAM). The AC voltage synthesis is realized by selecting and applying an appropriate collection of voltage vectors from the space-vector diagram. Integrating classical two-level inverters allows for achieving modularity of the solution. The main advantage of the proposed approach is a very low switching-to-fundamental frequency ratio and a multistep quasi-sinusoidal output voltage. The paper includes a theoretical analysis, simulations, and laboratory test results.

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Authors and Affiliations

Krzysztof Jakub Szwarc

e-mail:

ORCID:

Artur Cichowski

e-mail:

ORCID:

Paweł Szczepankowski

e-mail:

ORCID:

Janusz Nieznański

e-mail:

ORCID:

Ryszard Strzelecki

1 2

e-mail:

ORCID:

Gdansk University of Technology, Gda ´ nsk, Poland
Gdynia Maritime University, Gdynia, Poland

13 Feasibility study on in-situ heat injection of Tongchuan oil shale and tar-rich coal based on TG-DTG

Heping Yan , Xiurong Wu , Qiang Li , Yinghui Fang , Qingfeng Bu

Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences Technical Sciences | 2025 | 73 | 4 | e154274 | DOI: 10.24425/bpasts.2025.154274

Keywords: in-situ conversion Tongchuan oil shale TG-DTG pyrolysis characteristic

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Abstract

In-situ thermal injection is an effective development method for low-value unconventional resources. The nonisothermal pyrolysis characteristics of Tongchuan oil shale and tar-rich coal were investigated by TG-DTG extrapolation. In addition, the pyrolyzed shale oil was analyzed. The results show that the pyrolysis of oil shale and tar-rich coal can be divided into three stages. The pyrolysis temperature intervals of both can be consistent. Compared with the oil shale, the ignition temperature of the mix decreased by 2.3%, and the burnout temperature increased by 1.4%. The pyrolysis index increased by 40.3%, the pyrolysis stability increased by 66.7%, and the content of oxygenated compounds increased by 552.4%. The conversion of oxygenated compounds to phenolic compounds was inhibited at the 20°C/min heating rate. In the air, the excessively fast heating rate caused the tar to condense earlier and coke on the sample surface. The pyrolysis index of the mix decreased from 3.2 to 1.8 times, while the pyrolysis stability increased by 6.7 times, respectively. The introduction of excessive oxygenated groups by the air increased the content of oxygenated compounds in the mix by 485.44% while the aromatic hydrocarbons decreased by 17.97%. It can be seen that the co-pyrolysis of oil shale and tar-rich coal can improve the ignition characteristics of oil shale. The co-pyrolysis of oil shale and tar-rich coal not only conforms to the distribution characteristics of both but also greatly cooperates with the topical chemical reaction method.

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Authors and Affiliations

Heping Yan

Xiurong Wu

Qiang Li

e-mail:

ORCID:

Yinghui Fang

Qingfeng Bu

School of Resources and Geosciences, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou, 221116, China
Shaanxi 194 Coal Geological Co., Ltd., Tongchuan 727007, China
College of Construction Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun 130026, China

14 Numerical simulation method of fork-flow condenser and the influence of fin structure characteristics

Kaiming Liu , Nianyong Zhou , Lianghui Liu , Benshi Han , Jing Li , Guanghua Tang , Jixiang Liu , Feifei Wang

Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences Technical Sciences | 2025 | 73 | 4 | e154273 | DOI: 10.24425/bpasts.2025.154273

Keywords: condenser multiphase flow priodic iteration numerical simulation heat transfer characteristics

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Abstract

Many researchers have investigated numerical simulation methods for two-phase flow in condensers. Still, challenges persist due to these models' large size, complex structure, and multiphase flow fields. To address these issues, this paper employs a periodic iterative numerical simulation approach for ultra-long condensers, validating the method through experiments and advancing the numerical simulation technology for such models. The study emphasizes the impact of structural changes on the refrigerant and air sides. Results indicate that the most minor error occurs when the number of iterations in the two-phase zone does not exceed three. Increasing the total number of refrigerant channels from 10 to 18 enhances heat transfer by 17.7% and condensation capacity by 10.6%. However, further increases in channel numbers lead to a significant rise in pressure drop, deteriorating heat transfer performance. Heat transfer and condensation capacity improve with the height-to-width ratio of the refrigerant channel, reaching optimal performance when the ratio is close to 1. Additionally, increasing the aspect ratio on the air side will improve the heat transfer and condensation rate of the condenser. However, when the aspect ratio reaches 4.53, further increases will lead to a decrease in the heat transfer coefficient and an increase in pressure drop.

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Authors and Affiliations

Kaiming Liu

Nianyong Zhou

e-mail:

ORCID:

Lianghui Liu

Benshi Han

Jing Li

Guanghua Tang

Jixiang Liu

Feifei Wang

School of Urban Construction, Changzhou University, Changzhou, China
School of Urban Construction, Changzhou University, Changzhou, ChinaIndia
Xinxiang Aviation Industry Group Co. LTD, Xinxiang, 453049, China

15 Strain-controlled uniaxial fatigue of an AA2519 aluminium alloy sheet

Łukasz Pejkowski , Maciej Kotyk

Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences Technical Sciences | 2025 | 73 | 4 | e154271 | DOI: 10.24425/bpasts.2025.154271

Keywords: AA2519 aluminum alloy sheet metal fatigue life

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Abstract

This study provides a comprehensive investigation of the uniaxial, strain-controlled fatigue behaviour of an AA2519 aluminiumcopper alloy. The alloy was characterized in the as-fabricated state. Three orientations relative to the rolling direction were used to determine the mechanical properties. The quasi-static strength and cyclic stress-strain response of the AA2519 aluminium alloy for the examined cases were similar regardless of the rolling direction, although slight differences between them were noticeable. Similarly, the fatigue life was not strongly affected by the specimen orientation. The investigation also included fractographic analysis of the fracture surfaces, revealing differences between strain amplitude levels and specimen orientations. The experimental results obtained provide a good basis for engineering applications of the analyzed AA2519 alloy and offer a solid foundation for further research into the effect of heat treatment on the fatigue strength of the investigated alloy.

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Authors and Affiliations

Łukasz Pejkowski

e-mail:

ORCID:

Maciej Kotyk

e-mail:

ORCID:

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Bydgoszcz University of Science and Technology, Kaliskiego 7, 85-796 Bydgoszcz, Poland

16 Design and implementation of non-circular gears based on target transmission ratio

Weizhen SONG , Yong HE

Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences Technical Sciences | 2025 | 73 | 4 | e154227 | DOI: 10.24425/bpasts.2025.154277

Keywords: non-circular gear target transmission ratio kinematic analysis tooth profile extraction equal arc length algorithm

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Abstract

Addressing the complexities inherent in current specific non-circular gear design, including the extensive computational demands involved in solving tooth profile feature points and the lack of a rigorous design and verification process, this study proposes a design method grounded in gear meshing theory. Specifically, the method focuses on achieving the target transmission ratio for non-circular gear. First, the pitch curve equation for the non-circular gear is computed. Secondly, an equal arc length algorithm is proposed to determine the polar diameter rotation angle corresponding to the same arc length per turn, generating a non-circular gear envelope diagram using the equal arc length enveloping method. Subsequently, an edge extraction algorithm is presented to obtain the tooth profile feature data. After obtaining tooth profile feature data, the 3D model of non-circular gears is generated. Then, the gear pair is virtually assembled, and the meshing process is analyzed using a motion simulation method. The results show that the tooth profile meshes well, and the angular velocity curve of the driven wheel is consistent with the target transmission ratio. Finally, the processed non-circular gear was inspected, and the results indicated that the error between the produced non-circular gear and the theoretical tooth profile was within a reasonable range. This confirms the accuracy of the proposed method and provides a rigorous design and verification process for non-circular gears, which is beneficial for further analysis in manufacturing and other tasks. This method not only significantly reduces computation time but also simplifies the process of extracting tooth profile feature points, ensuring extraction accuracy.

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Authors and Affiliations

Weizhen SONG

e-mail:

ORCID:

Yong HE

School of Mechanical Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai, 201620, China

17 Estimation of CO2 emissions from vehicles using machine learning and multi-model investigation

Mükerrem Sinem Mungan , Orhan Arpa

Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences Technical Sciences | 2025 | 73 | 4 | e154287 | DOI: 10.24425/bpasts.2025.154287

Keywords: CO2 emissions machine learning CatBoostRegressor regression analysis environmental sustainability

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Abstract

This study presents a comprehensive analysis of the prediction of carbon dioxide emissions from vehicles using machine learningbased regression models. Linear regression, lasso regression, k-nearest neighbor regression, random forest, and CatBoostRegressor algorithms are systematically evaluated using a dataset of vehicle specifications and emissions data. Hyper-parameter optimization was performed using a grid search method and the performance of the models was measured using mean squared error, root mean squared error, mean absolute error, and R-squared metrics. CatBoostRegressor stood out for its high predictive accuracy, while random forest and k-nearest neighbor models also produced notable results, while linear models failed to model complex data relationships. Correlation analysis showed that engine displacement, number of cylinders, and fuel consumption were strongly correlated (0.92–0.99) with carbon dioxide emissions. The comparison with the literature showed that the study was characterized by its multi-model approach, rigorous data pre-processing, and systematic optimization. However, the geographical limitation of the dataset and the lack of dynamic variables such as driving conditions restrict its generalizability. In the future, explainable artificial intelligence methods and larger datasets may overcome these limitations. By highlighting the applicability of CatBoostRegressor, this study strengthens the contribution of machine learning to environmental sustainability policy and provides methodological innovation in the literature.

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Authors and Affiliations

Mükerrem Sinem Mungan

e-mail:

ORCID:

Orhan Arpa

e-mail:

ORCID:

Mardin Artuklu University Vocational School Machinery and Metal Technologies Department Machinery Program, Mardin, Türkiye
Dicle University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Diyarbakır, Türkiye

18 The fast type-IV discrete sine transform algorithms for short-length input sequences

Marina Polyakova , Anna Witenberg , Aleksandr Cariow

Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences Technical Sciences | 2025 | 73 | 4 | e153827 | DOI: 10.24425/bpasts.2025.153827

Keywords: discrete sine transform matrix factorization fast algorithms computational complexity digital signal processing

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Abstract

The fast algorithms of discrete sinusoidal transform of the fourth type (DST-IV) for small-length input data in the range of lengths from 2 to 9 are developed. Fast algorithms for short input data sequences are subsequently used as building blocks for designing fast algorithms of large-sized discrete transforms. Applying the fast DST-IV algorithms for small-size block processing can reduce overall system complexity and delay, allowing detailed signal processing. As a result of the literature review, two main approaches to developing fast discrete sine transform (DST) algorithms were identified, namely, the polynomial algebraic approach and the matrix factorization approach. In the paper, the last approach is exploited. A matrix-vector product expression of the DST-IV is the starting point for designing the fast algorithms. Then based on the repetition and arranging of the matrix elements, the factorisation of the matrices of coefficients of DST-IV is produced to reduce computational complexity. The correctness of the obtained algorithmic solutions was justified theoretically using a strict mathematical background of each of them. The elaborated algorithms were then further tested using MATLAB R2023b software to finally confirm their performance. The resulting factorizations of the DST-IV matrices reduce the number of multiplications by 63% but increase the number of additions by 8% on average in the range of signal sample numbers from 3 to 9. It has been observed that for even-length input sequences, the reduction in the number of multiplications is not as significant as for odd-length sequences. For some other well-known discrete trigonometric transforms (discrete Fourier transform, discrete Hartley transform) the opposite situation holds. The proposed DST-IV fast algorithms do not limit the length of the input data sequence to powers of two or three. The data flow graphs constructed for the proposed algorithms reveal their modular space-time structure suitable for VLSI implementation. Keywords: discrete sine transform; matrix factorization; fast algorithms; computational complexity; digital signal processing.

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Authors and Affiliations

Marina Polyakova

e-mail:

ORCID:

Anna Witenberg

e-mail:

ORCID:

Aleksandr Cariow

e-mail:

ORCID:

Institute of Computer Systems, Odesa Polytechnic National University, Shevchenko 1, Odesa, 65044, Ukraine
Institute of Telecommunications and Computer Science, University of Science and Technology, al. prof. S. Kaliskiego 7, 85-796 Bydgoszcz, Poland
Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology, West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, Żołnierska 49, 71-210 Szczecin, Poland

19 Signed networks with Laplacian feedback: Observability and minimal sensor problem

Vijayakumar S. MUNI , Kallu Vetty Muhammed RAFEEK , Gudala Janardhana REDDY , Deena Sunil SHARANAPPA

Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences Technical Sciences | 2025 | 73 | 4 | e154061 | DOI: 10.24425/bpasts.2025.154061

Keywords: multi-agent systems observability signed graph

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Abstract

In many multi-agent networks that evolve according to specific dynamical rules, our direct access is often limited to only a small subset of agents, known as “sensors.” The remaining agents in the network, whose states are entirely inaccessible, are referred to as “actuators.” If it is possible to retrieve the complete states of the actuators from the knowledge of the sensor states, the network is said to be “sensor–actuator observable”; otherwise, it is deemed unobservable. This research explores the analysis of sensor–actuator observability property (i.e., observable or unobservable) in networks where agent communications encompass both cooperation and competition (i.e., signed networks). It is assumed that the network agents continuously update their states within R under the Laplacian protocol. We simplify the Kalman’s and the PBH rank criteria for evaluating sensor–actuator observability property into several verifiable algebraic tests, emphasizing the significance of the system matrices’ spectral properties. This property is also examined from the perspective of the network graph topology. Sensor–actuator observability property is significantly influenced by the nature of agent communications and often differs between signed and unsigned networks. However, we demonstrate that for a structurally balanced signed network, with specific set of sensors, its sensor–actuator observability property aligns with that of its unsigned variant. We present a formula utilizing Laplacian spectral information to determine the minimum number of sensors for an ensured sensor–actuator observable network. Applying the formula to path and cycle networks, it is found that paths are observable with one sensor, and cycles require two for observability.

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Authors and Affiliations

Vijayakumar S. MUNI

e-mail:

ORCID:

Kallu Vetty Muhammed RAFEEK

Gudala Janardhana REDDY

Deena Sunil SHARANAPPA

Department of Mathematics, Smt. Indira Gandhi Government First Grade Women’s College, Sagara P. O., Shivamogga District 577401, India
Department of Mathematics, Central University of Karnataka, Kadaganchi P. O., Kalaburagi District 585367, India
Department of Mathematics, Indira Gandhi National Tribal University, Amarkantak P. O., Anuppur District 484886, India

20 A Markov chain modeltodetermineoptimal maintenancepolicy forproductionprocess inautomotive company

Mohammad Saber Fallah NEZHAD , Mohammad Hossein Kargar SHOUROKI , Shahaboddin KHARAZMI

Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences Technical Sciences | 2025 | 73 | 4 | e154065 | DOI: 10.24425/bpasts.2025.154065

Keywords: discrete-time Markov chain maintenance policy optimum policy cost minimization

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Abstract

This paper considers an operating machine with deteriorating performance over time. Initially, functioning at 100% of its nominal capacity, the machine fails after a stochastic period, reducing its capacity to a proportion of the nominal level. In this degraded capacity state, three maintenance and repair policy options are available for evaluation. By modelling the system as a discrete-time Markov chain and analyzing the probability transition matrix between the system states, the costs associated with the loss of production, part replacement, and ongoing operation in each state can be quantified. The objective function representing the average cost per unit time of production is calculated to determine the optimal maintenance policy. Different policies are modelled by the Markov chain and the average cost of each policy is obtained. The results demonstrate the applicability of the proposed methodology to evaluating different policies.

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Authors and Affiliations

Mohammad Saber Fallah NEZHAD

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ORCID:

Mohammad Hossein Kargar SHOUROKI

Shahaboddin KHARAZMI

Department of Industrial Engineering, Yazd University, Yazd, Iran
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Semnan University, Semnan, Iran

21 Bending behaviour of thin-walled perforated channel beams with modified cross sectional shape – Part 2: analytical calculations and FEM

Paweł Jasion , Aleksandra M. Pawlak , Piotr Paczos , Michał Plust , Marcin Rodak

Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences Technical Sciences | 2025 | 73 | 4 | e153435 | DOI: 10.24425/bpasts.2025.153435

Keywords: thin-walled channel beams web perforations four-point bending structural stability buckling analysis

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Abstract

This article is the second part of a comprehensive research program investigating the structural performance of thin-walled channels with modified cross-sectional geometries. The study involved testing six beams, three of which featured perforated webs, while the other three had flat, solid webs. The beams were subjected to four-point bending tests in order to evaluate their load-bearing capacity. The first part of the research presented the results of experimental tests and finite strip analysis. This article will focus on finite element analyses and analytical calculations conducted in accordance with Eurocode 3 guidelines and the principle of minimizing potential energy. The study provides several significant contributions: it integrates experimental, numerical and theoretical methods to deliver a thorough evaluation of beam performance. The finite element method (FEM) simulations offer precise modeling of complex stress and strain states, while analytical calculations supply a solid theoretical foundation for interpreting structural behavior. The research demonstrates that web perforation, while reducing critical and maximum forces, also results in considerable weight savings, enhancing material efficiency. Additionally, the division of the research into two articles ensures clarity and accessibility, with this second part being dedicated to detailed FEM and analytical results, thereby facilitating both academic understanding and practical engineering applications.

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Authors and Affiliations

Paweł Jasion

e-mail:

ORCID:

Aleksandra M. Pawlak

e-mail:

ORCID:

Piotr Paczos

e-mail:

ORCID:

Michał Plust

e-mail:

ORCID:

Marcin Rodak

e-mail:

ORCID:

Poznan University of Technology, Institute of Applied Mechanics, Jana Pawła II 24, 60-965 Poznan, Poland

22 Modeling responsive structures under external forces using an evolutionary algorithm

Szymon Jankowski , Waldemar Bober

Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences Technical Sciences | 2025 | 73 | 4 | e153432 | DOI: 10.24425/bpasts.2025.153432

Keywords: responsive architecture for urban planning shape changing structures morphing urban structures smart city structures evolutionary algorithm structure behavior modeling

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Abstract

The design of responsive structures has evolved significantly, establishing itself as an interdisciplinary field characterized by a fully customized ideation process. In order to streamline and unify this process, a novel method for modeling the behavior of rod-like responsive structures using an evolutionary algorithm is introduced. The proposed mathematical framework leverages key geometric and physical parameters to control the generative process, enabling adaptability and fluidity in form development. By employing an evolutionary algorithm, the method offers an alternative to conventional rigid and repetitive morphing models, providing flexibility and innovation in responsive design outcomes. The model developed supports independent learning and fosters originality in solutions at both architectural and urban scales. Moreover, the presented methodology serves as the foundation upon which the authors developed the model, enabling its application across a wide spectrum of responsive structures for users. This paper addresses challenges in spatial modeling, behavioral algorithms, and the implementation of responsive architecture, presenting the authors’ innovative model for rod-like responsive structures alongside performance analysis. The methodology demonstrates promising results in terms of adaptability and efficiency, with potential for further refinement to enhance speed and output quality. The study also describes challenges and risks for further development of responsive models implementation.

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Authors and Affiliations

Szymon Jankowski

e-mail:

ORCID:

Waldemar Bober

e-mail:

ORCID:

Faculty of Architecture, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wybrzeze Wyspia ˙ nskiego 27, 50-370 Wrocław, Poland

23 Dynamics analysis on cavitation flow field of centrifugal pumps using modal order reduction

Yancheng ZHANG , Lei ZHANG , Cong WANG , Tengjiao SUN , Z. LI , Dezhi JIANG

Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences Technical Sciences | 2025 | 73 | 4 | e154280 | DOI: 10.24425/bpasts.2025.154280

Keywords: centrifugal pump cavitation flow field modal, analysis dynamic modal decomposition

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Abstract

Throughout the operational lifecycle of centrifugal pumps, cavitation is an omnipresent phenomenon that frequently leads to cavitation erosion and a decline in hydraulic heads, leading to mechanical failures and substantial damage to the pump assembly. Although the cavitation phenomenon has been widely studied in existing literature, it is still a challenging task for reliable flow dynamics analysis of centrifugal pumps using the modal order reduction technique. In this study, the modal decomposition and reconstruction of the flow field of a centrifugal pump considering the cavitation are conducted. The dynamic modal decomposition (DMD) based on the singular value decomposition (SVD) is employed to explore the dynamic behaviour of the cavitation flow field by reducing the modal order of the flow field. Then, the modal characteristics of the pump flow field are systematically analyzed. The results demonstrate that the DMD method can improve the accuracy of the order reduction model and reduce the modal reconstruction error, the reconstruction error loss is less than 5%, and the calculation efficiency is significantly enhanced to analyze the pump cavitation flow field. In addition, a comparison of the calculation data between the finite element simulation and the DMD reconstructed flow field indicates the potential application of the DMD method in investigating the degradation of the flow field due to cavitation, which provides new perspective and solid technique support for centrifugal pump cavitation analysis.

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Authors and Affiliations

Yancheng ZHANG

Lei ZHANG

e-mail:

ORCID:

Cong WANG

Tengjiao SUN

Z. LI

Dezhi JIANG

e-mail:

ORCID:

College of Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, China
Qingdao Port Ferry & Barge Co., Ltd, Qingdao, 266011, China
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Opole University of Technology, 45-758 Opole, Poland

24 Static analysis of a two-layer beam with a flexible interlayer connection

Katarzyna Misiurek , Monika Podwórna , Piotr Ruta , Olga Szyłko-Bigus , Rafał Idzikowski

Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences Technical Sciences | 2025 | 73 | 4 | e154278 | DOI: 10.24425/bpasts.2025.154278

Keywords: two-layer beam interlayer slip static analysis

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Abstract

This research aims to develop an algorithm that allows for the analysis of the influence of interlayer connections on the static response of double-layer beams. Since their construction uses the advantages of different materials, multilayer beams are widely used in the construction industry. The critical element of these types of structures is the connection between layers, the stiffness of which can significantly affect the static response of the system, and therefore its strength. The Euler-Bernoulli model was used to describe the double-layer beams. In the paper, the compliance of normal displacements in multilayer and double-layer beams was considered based on the research of other authors. It was also assumed that the tangential interactions at the connection of layers were tangential forces that are proportional to the relative tangential displacement (slip) of these layers. This general approach eliminates the need for a broader analysis of the connection (its description and structure) with regard to the applied “connector” between the layers. Using equilibrium equations and the adopted assumptions, a system of displacement equations was derived. This system is formed by three coupled second- and fourth-order differential equations, the exact solution of which is a nontrivial mathematical problem. This system was solved using the finite sine and cosine Fourier transform. Although the algorithm presented in the paper was used to solve a specific set of equations that describe a simply supported beam, the formulas derived in the paper allow for solving beams with other support schemes. The Fourier transformation method, after appropriate modifications (changing the boundary conditions and, in some cases, changing the sine to cosine transformation and vice versa), can be used to solve beams that have other support conditions. To verify the correctness and effectiveness of the described method, two numerical examples were solved. In the first one, the influence of the variable value of the tangential stiffness of the connection on the values ??and distribution of internal forces (including the influence on the values ??of normal stresses) was analyzed. In the second example, calculations were performed for an example taken from the literature, and the obtained results were compared with the results obtained by other authors. The analyzed examples confirmed the significant influence of the tangential stiffness of the layer connection on the static response of the system. Furthermore, they confirmed the correctness and high accuracy of the method that was used to solve the problem.

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Authors and Affiliations

Katarzyna Misiurek

e-mail:

ORCID:

Monika Podwórna

e-mail:

ORCID:

Piotr Ruta

e-mail:

ORCID:

Olga Szyłko-Bigus

e-mail:

ORCID:

Rafał Idzikowski

e-mail:

ORCID:

Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wrocław, Poland
Wroclaw University of Environmental and Life Science, Wrocław, Poland

25 Kronecker product-based solvers for higher-order finite element method Navier-Stokes simulations

Tomasz Służalec , Marcin Łoś , Mateusz Dobija , Maciej Paszynski

Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences Technical Sciences | 2025 | 73 | 4 | e154276 | DOI: 10.24425/bpasts.2025.154276

Keywords: partial differential equations finite element method Navier-Stokes equations variational splitting Petrov-Galerkin method Kronecker product solver

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Abstract

Transient time-dependent problems solved with higher-order finite element methods and time integration schemes sometimes encounter instabilities in time steps due to varying model parameters. This problem is commonly illustrated on a transient cavity flow modeled with NavierStokes equations, where for large Reynolds numbers, finite element discretizations B�� = �� become unstable. The instability comes from the discrete inf-sup condition not fulfilled by the Galerkin method. To stabilize time steps, we employ a Petrov-Galerkin method B ^��W�� = W^�� with optimal test functions. However, this method commonly has two disadvantages. First, having a larger test space fixed, we must compute the matrix of coefficients of the optimal test functions W on the fly, which requires solving a system of linear equations GW = B with proper Gram matrix G each time step for varying model parameters. Second, the matrix of coefficients of optimal test functions is dense, and thus, the cost of multiplying it by other matrices B ^��W (which is needed) is high. To overcome these problems, we explore the Kronecker product structure of the matrix of coefficients of the optimal test functions G as well as of the matrices B resulting from the variational splitting of the time-integration scheme. Our solver can be successfully applied to the high Reynolds number Navier-Stokes equations.

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Authors and Affiliations

Tomasz Służalec

e-mail:

ORCID:

Marcin Łoś

e-mail:

ORCID:

Mateusz Dobija

e-mail:

ORCID:

Maciej Paszynski

e-mail:

ORCID:

AGH University of Krakow, al. Mickiewicza 30, 30-059 Krakow, Poland
Jagiellonian University, Łojasiewicza 11, 30-348 Krakow, Poland

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